The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

One of the fascinating things about trying to write a historical novel is how much you learn that you never thought about before. One of our character is a Chinese immigrant who became an explosives expert while on the Transcontinental Railroad. While researching the background for this character I learned about the Chinese Exclusion Act and its implications today.

Chinese gold miners working alongside white miners

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 marked a significant moment in American history, serving as the first major piece of federal legislation to restrict immigration based on ethnicity. The path to this discriminatory law was paved throughout the 1870s with increasing persecution and hostility towards Chinese immigrants. It was a period in our history marked by economic anxiety, racial prejudice, and political opportunism that culminated in one of the darkest chapters of American immigration policy.

I'd never realized that Chinese began arriving on or shores in significant numbers during the California Gold Rush of the late 1840s and early 1850s. (My how word travels!) They were drawn, like many others from around the world, by the promise of wealth and opportunity. Initially, these immigrants were welcomed for their labor, which was crucial in the burgeoning mining industry and later in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad. However, as the number of Chinese immigrants grew, so did resentment among white Americans.

For example, in 1852, Governor John Bigler asked the California Assembly to pass laws to stop Chinese immigration. Two years later, a California legal case set a bad precedent as regards legitimizing violence towards the Chinese. The situation was exacerbated by the case of People v. Hall (1854). In 1853, a white miner named George Hall robbed one Chinese miner and killed another. Based on the testimony of several Chinese witnesses, Hall was arrested and sentenced to hang. However, the California Supreme Court declared that the testimony of Chinese people could not be used against white defendants, and Hall was released. This effectively meant that there were now almost no legal protections for the Chinese, and assaults on the Chinese community continued unabated throughout the 1850s. 

 

By the 1870s, the United States was experiencing economic difficulties, including the Long Depression that began in 1873. Jobs became scarcer, and competition for employment intensified. Chinese laborers, who were willing to work for lower wages, were seen as a direct threat to other workers. This economic anxiety was a critical factor driving anti-Chinese sentiment. Labor unions, particularly those in California, were vocal in their opposition to Chinese immigration. Leaders like Denis Kearney of the Workingmen's Party of California used inflammatory rhetoric, blaming the Chinese for unemployment and depressed wages among white laborers.

 

Economic factors weren't the only sources of tension. Racial prejudice played a significant role in the persecution of Chinese immigrants. Chinese people were viewed as racially inferior and culturally unassimilable by many white Americans. They were often depicted in the media and political cartoons in a derogatory manner, reinforcing negative stereotypes. (Much can be written about this practice.) The cultural practices and communal living arrangements of the Chinese, which were different from those of the majority population, further fueled suspicion and xenophobia.

 

The growing hostility towards Chinese immigrants translated into both social and legal discrimination. In many cities and towns, Chinese individuals were barred from certain occupations and faced restrictions on property ownership. Violent attacks against Chinese communities were not uncommon. One of the most notorious incidents was the Chinese Massacre of 1871 in Los Angeles, where a mob killed around 20 Chinese men and boys while looting their homes and businesses.

 

As one might expect, politicians capitalized on the widespread anti-Chinese sentiment to gain support. Anti-Chinese rhetoric became a staple in political campaigns, especially in California. The state's politicians pushed for local and state laws to restrict the rights of Chinese residents. The Page Act of 1875, which prohibited the immigration of Chinese women under the pretext of preventing prostitution, was an early example of federal legislation influenced by anti-Chinese sentiment.

 

By the end of the 1870s, the stage was set for more comprehensive federal action. The combination of economic fears, racial prejudice, and political manipulation had created a climate ripe for restrictive legislation. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur. This act suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared Chinese immigrants ineligible for naturalization. It was a culmination of the decade-long persecution and represented a significant shift in American immigration policy, establishing an unfortunate precedent for future restrictive laws.

 

Related Links

The Problem of Hate

Opposition to Chinese Exclusion (1850-1902)

Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World 

He Who Controls the Narrative Controls the People

This Day In History: Events of Note, Events to Mourn -- With Commentary

Young Mr. Disney with famous his pal Mickey

Walt Disney was trending on Twitter today. He's been dead for quite some time, so it couldn't have been news about his passing. Sure enough, it was news about his coming back to life after being stored in a cryogenic state since his passing in 1966. 

Just kidding. On this day in History Walt Disney was born in 1901.

Upon reading this I had two directions to consider. (1) a blog post about Mr. Disney and his influence, or (2) an overview of other events that took place on this day in history. I'm choosing the latter. 

DID YOU KNOW

ON THIS DAY in history... 

In 1848 the California Gold Rush began. 
California was pretty desolate before that. There used to be three ways to get to the West Coast back before the Transcontinental Railroad. All of them took six months and were fraught with peril. One was was by boat, around the tip of South America, passing through the treacherous Straits of Magellan. The second route was to go by sea down to the Panama Isthmus and do a land passage to the other side. The danger there, of course, was malaria and dengue fever. A third route was equally challenging, by wagon train across the continent. There were no guarantees and many hazards on this journey, too.

Two other big Gold Rush events occurred in our history. One was the Black Hills Gold Rush (1976-77) and the second was the Yukon Gold Rush (1892-1912). Adventurer and author Jack London wrote many stories about the latter. (If you can find it, look for his tale "Lost Face") As for the Black Hills, there is still "gold in them thar hills. (To this day people are still chasing gold in myriad ways, but that's a different story.)

The Bermuda Triangle Event of 1945
Depending on which account you read, on this day in 1945 either four or five U.S. Navy Avenger bombers disappeared approximately 100 miles off the coast of Florida. Flight 19 took off from the Ft. Lauderdale Naval Air Station on a routine three-hour training mission. Flight 19 was scheduled to take them due east for 120 miles, north for 73 miles, and then back over a final 120-mile leg that would return them to the naval base. They never returned, disappearing without a trace.

1791--Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart dies in Vienna.
Years ago I made lists of favorite things with one list being favorite short classical compositions. More recently I shared these in story titled 10 Classical Music Favorites of Exquisite Beauty. Two Mozart compositions were on this list. What an amazingly productive genius. He packed so much into such a short life that it seems almost inconceivable.

Publicity still for Bob Dylan's "Heaven's Door" whisky.*

1933--The 21st Amendment ends Prohibition in the United States
13 years earlier the Volstead Act was passed and, as with many decisions, the law of unintended consequences was set in motion. Interestingly, Jack London wrote a novel in support of Prohibition titled John Barleycorn about his enjoyment of and struggles with alcohol. The fourth studio album of the British group Traffic was titled John Barleycorn Must Die. (Interesting.)

1955 - Today was the beginning of the Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott led by Dr. Martin Luther King.
Let's pause for a moment of silence because race is still such an issue in this country.

1964 - Lorne Greene's song "Ringo" becomes a No. 1 hit single in the U.S.
It's always interesting when people famous in one discipline do something in another. Dylan making sculpture for example. Or comedian Jonathan Winters making fine art. Greene was one of the four members of the Cartwright family on one of television's longest running Weesterns, Bonanza. At our house it seems like the show was on every Sunday night from 1959 into the early 70's. Off the top of my head I am not sure how many Hollywood stars become rock stars, but I do know that fame as a rock star seems to open doors in Hollywood. Mick Jagger, David Bowie, The Beatles, Madonna come readily to mind. 

1965--The Beatles play their last Liverpool concert
The Fab Four performed at the Liverpool Empire. There were only 5100 tickets and 40,000 applications. That week the #1 hit in the UK was their "We Can Work It Out"/"Day Tripper"... a single that I also had bought around that time.

1968--The Rolling Stones' Beggars Banquet was released. 
That year for Christmas I think the one thing I wanted more than anything was Beggar's Banquet. I was into the Stones because all the girls in schools seemed to swoon over The Beatles, so it was a bit of a contrarian attitude. Nevertheless I did have most of the albums by both groups up through the early 70s. And yes, I did get Beggar's Banquet for Christmas that year. The photo inside was so cool!

In 1992, Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You" begins a 10 week run at #1 in the UK  

As the saying goes, Ms. Houston had incredible pipes. She sold over 200 million records worldwide and according the Guinness Book of World Records she was the most awarded female artist of all time. What prompted me to include this bit of trivia was seeing that Dolly Parton was the songwriter. It wasn't until I watched the Ken Burns documentary on Country Music that I discovered Ms. Parton was a songwriter and not just a performer. Dolly Parton was the 4th of 12 children born in Eastern Tennessee, her earliest years in a one room house. If I recall correctly, she wrote her first song when she was five. 

* See: Marketing Heaven's Door: Bob Dylan's Foray into the Whiskey Business