One of the fascinating things about trying to write a historical novel is how much you learn that you never thought about before. One of our character is a Chinese immigrant who became an explosives expert while on the Transcontinental Railroad. While researching the background for this character I learned about the Chinese Exclusion Act and its implications today.
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| Chinese gold miners working alongside white miners |
I'd never realized that Chinese began arriving on or shores in significant numbers during the California Gold Rush of the late 1840s and early 1850s. (My how word travels!) They were drawn, like many others from around the world, by the promise of wealth and opportunity. Initially, these immigrants were welcomed for their labor, which was crucial in the burgeoning mining industry and later in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad. However, as the number of Chinese immigrants grew, so did resentment among white Americans.
For example, in 1852, Governor John Bigler asked the California Assembly to pass laws to stop Chinese immigration. Two years later, a California legal case set a bad precedent as regards legitimizing violence towards the Chinese. The situation was exacerbated by the case of People v. Hall (1854). In 1853, a white miner named George Hall robbed one Chinese miner and killed another. Based on the testimony of several Chinese witnesses, Hall was arrested and sentenced to hang. However, the California Supreme Court declared that the testimony of Chinese people could not be used against white defendants, and Hall was released. This effectively meant that there were now almost no legal protections for the Chinese, and assaults on the Chinese community continued unabated throughout the 1850s.
By the 1870s, the United States was experiencing economic difficulties, including the Long Depression that began in 1873. Jobs became scarcer, and competition for employment intensified. Chinese laborers, who were willing to work for lower wages, were seen as a direct threat to other workers. This economic anxiety was a critical factor driving anti-Chinese sentiment. Labor unions, particularly those in California, were vocal in their opposition to Chinese immigration. Leaders like Denis Kearney of the Workingmen's Party of California used inflammatory rhetoric, blaming the Chinese for unemployment and depressed wages among white laborers.
Economic factors weren't the only sources of tension. Racial prejudice played a significant role in the persecution of Chinese immigrants. Chinese people were viewed as racially inferior and culturally unassimilable by many white Americans. They were often depicted in the media and political cartoons in a derogatory manner, reinforcing negative stereotypes. (Much can be written about this practice.) The cultural practices and communal living arrangements of the Chinese, which were different from those of the majority population, further fueled suspicion and xenophobia.
The growing hostility towards Chinese immigrants translated into both social and legal discrimination. In many cities and towns, Chinese individuals were barred from certain occupations and faced restrictions on property ownership. Violent attacks against Chinese communities were not uncommon. One of the most notorious incidents was the Chinese Massacre of 1871 in Los Angeles, where a mob killed around 20 Chinese men and boys while looting their homes and businesses.
As one might expect, politicians capitalized on the widespread anti-Chinese sentiment to gain support. Anti-Chinese rhetoric became a staple in political campaigns, especially in California. The state's politicians pushed for local and state laws to restrict the rights of Chinese residents. The Page Act of 1875, which prohibited the immigration of Chinese women under the pretext of preventing prostitution, was an early example of federal legislation influenced by anti-Chinese sentiment.
By the end of the 1870s, the stage was set for more comprehensive federal action. The combination of economic fears, racial prejudice, and political manipulation had created a climate ripe for restrictive legislation. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur. This act suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared Chinese immigrants ineligible for naturalization. It was a culmination of the decade-long persecution and represented a significant shift in American immigration policy, establishing an unfortunate precedent for future restrictive laws.
Related Links
Opposition to Chinese Exclusion (1850-1902)
Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World
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